Writing In Tongues
Writing in Tongues: Multilingual Books
Multilingual Books
What would you do if you met someone and it was important for you to interact with them, but you couldn’t understand what they were saying? Or, what if there was a book or story that was important for your culture or religious community, but you didn’t grow up speaking its language?
Encounters between different people often involve gaps in understanding due to differences in language and dialect, vocabulary and grammar. This is true of spoken encounters in everyday life as well as encounters with the people of past ages through written texts, and it has led many people to develop skills in multiple languages that would help them more easily navigate the world’s diverse linguistic landscape. This complex reality is reflected in historic books, many of which incorporate multiple languages for a wide variety of reasons. Explore this exhibition to see examples of both printed books and manuscripts from HMML’s collections and to discover some of the reasons why a book might communicate in more languages than one.
Teaching Texts
If you need to learn a new language, it will be much easier if you don’t have to decipher the entire language unassisted. You might be able to find another person with knowledge of both languages who can teach you, or you might find a book that lays out the grammar of the new language in a helpful way. The books in this section attempted to fulfill this need. Sometimes the books were made to help those learning a language for scholarly or religious reasons, or to help people who were trying to become an international diplomat or a successful participant in the business of international trade. In another example, a book was written for an immigrant community and their new neighbors who hoped to better understand each other.
Geʻez grammar book by Marianus Victorius [Geʻez/Latin]
Rome, 1630
The early modern Catholic Church published language-learning materials for the benefit of its missionaries and other interested people
This grammar of Geʻez, the sacred language of Ethiopian Christianity (mistakenly identified in the book’s title as Chaldean), was first published in 1552 with the help of Täsfa Ṣeyon, an Ethiopian monk who lived in Rome. It was republished in 1630 by the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, the Church office responsible for missionary work, with a logo depicting Christ preaching to the nations.
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Chaldeae seu Aethiopicae linguae institutiones (Foundations of the Chaldean or Ethiopic language), Marianus Victorius (approximately 1485–1572), Rome, 1630. (AARB 00202)
English-Arabic grammar book by Ibrāhīm Yūsuf ʻArbīlī [English/Arabic]
New York, 1924
Immigrants to the United States published resources to help their communities become part of their new society
ʻArbīlī was a member of one of the first families to immigrate to the United States from Ottoman Syria in 1878, initially settling in Maryville, Tennessee. He wrote this grammar book in 1896 and, unlike most grammars, it is meant to teach both English (for Arabic-speaking readers) and Arabic (for English speakers), in hopes of building cultural bridges from both directions. This is the third edition, testifying to the book’s popularity.
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al-Bākūrah al-Gharbīyah fī taʻlīm al-lughah al-Inkilīzīyah (al-Bakoorat al-Gharbeyat fee taleem al-lughat al-Englezeyat / The first Occidental fruit for the teaching of the English and Arabic languages), Ibrāhīm Yūsuf ʻArbīlī (Abraham Joseph Arbeely, 1852–1919), New York, 1924. (HMML 00582)
Commentary on a poetic Arabic-Turkish dictionary by Yayakaryeli Ahmet Reşit [Arabic/Ottoman Turkish]
Istanbul, 1843
In some traditions, teaching texts are written in poetry as a way to help the reader memorize the vocabulary and grammatical rules
Poetic dictionaries were a popular genre in some Islamic contexts, especially in the Ottoman Empire. A poetic dictionary by Vehbî (d. 1809), called Nuhbe (Elite), helped Turkish speakers memorize the Arabic equivalents of many Turkish words. Ahmet Reşit wrote a Turkish commentary on Vehbî’s poem, explaining its definitions in greater detail.
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Nuhbe-i Vehbî şerhi (Commentary on Vehbî’s Elite), Yayakaryeli Ahmet Reşit (d. approximately 1841), Istanbul, 1843. (HMML 00591)
Introduction to Arabic grammar by Giovanni Battista Raimondi [Arabic/Latin]
Rome, 1592
As European interventions around the world increased in the age of imperialism, it became more important to understand the world’s languages
This introduction to the basics of the Arabic language was published anonymously by the Medici family press, but it seems to be the work of Raimondi, an Italian Orientalist. In the 1670s, a later owner added notes to the title page and other pages in a variety of languages, including Persian, Arabic, French, Greek, and Latin.
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Alphabetum arabicum (Arabic alphabet), Giovanni Battista Raimondi (1540–1610), Rome, 1592. (SJRB 00565)
Scholarly Exploration
Many books provide opportunities for scholars to explore other languages and their texts without being primarily focused on teaching readers to understand these languages. Bilingual and multilingual dictionaries provide resources for readers who have moved beyond the beginning stage of language learning. Editions and translations make texts available to scholars with varying levels of fluency in the texts’ original languages. So-called “polyglot” editions are a truly ambitious scholarly project that preserves a text in many of the languages in which it exists. Still other books seem to explore the diversity of the world’s languages simply for the sheer scholarly and aesthetic joy of it, bringing them together in a visual banquet that can help readers recognize them but provides little in-depth exploration of their grammatical structures. Books in this section fulfill all of these purposes.
A collection of languages by Daniel B. Dixon [English/numerous languages]
Rome, 1855
Some books compile examples of the world’s languages simply for the aesthetic value of the collection
Little is known about Dixon, a young native of Cincinnati who studied in Rome. He calls the study of languages “beautiful and interesting above all other studies,” and in this book he collects examples of dozens of languages, living and dead. In many cases he copies the Lord’s Prayer, while in others it seems that he does not understand the language and simply follows the lines of the script.
—A collection of ancient & modern languages, Daniel B. Dixon (active 1855), Rome, 1855. (AARB 00020)
Revelation and Catholic Epistles edited by Joseph Juste Scaliger, Lodewijk de Dieu, and Edward Pococke [Greek/Latin/Syriac]
Leiden, 1627–1630
Early modern scholars sought out obscure translations of biblical texts and published them
The book of Revelation and some of the Catholic Epistles (2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude) were not considered canonical for many centuries in the Syriac Christian traditions. Nevertheless, scholars tracked down Syriac manuscripts of these books and published them. This edition includes the Syriac text along with a transliteration of the Syriac into Hebrew letters, the Greek original, and a Latin version.
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Revelation, edited by Joseph Juste Scaliger (1540–1609) and Lodewijk de Dieu (1590–1642); Catholic Epistles, edited by Edward Pococke (1604–1691). Leiden, 1627–1630. (AARB 00209)
Syriac-Latin dictionary by Giovanni Battista Ferrari [Syriac/Latin/etc.]
Rome, 1622
Some scholars use their books as an opportunity to show the breadth of their language skills
This book is a fairly straightforward Syriac-Latin dictionary. It is distinguished by the introductory section, in which Ferrari gathered dedicatory poems in honor of the work by various collaborators, including several Maronites who were studying in Rome. There are poems in Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, and Latin, showcasing the academic breadth of Ferrari’s scholarly circle as well as the variety of types available to the publisher, Stefano Paolini (d. 1640?).
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Nomenclator syriacus (Syriac wordbook), Giovanni Battista Ferrari (1584–1655), Rome, 1622. (AARB 00218)
Psalms, edited by Agostino Giustiniani [Arabic/Aramaic/Greek/Hebrew/Latin]
Genoa, 1516
Early modern scholars ambitiously collected numerous versions of biblical texts into single volumes
So-called “polyglot” Bibles required a wide array of language skills. This Psalter includes the text of the Psalms in the original Hebrew with versions in Arabic, Aramaic, and Greek, a Latin translation of each, and additional commentary in Latin. The page displayed here includes the first printed account of the voyages of Christopher Columbus, a native of Genoa, in its commentary on Psalm 19:4 (“to the end of the world”).
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Psalms, edited by Agostino Giustiniani (1470–1536), Genoa, 1516. (AARB 00237)
Refutation of the Qurʼan by Luigi Marracci [Arabic/Latin]
Padua, 1698
Some scholars interact with texts in other languages in order to refute them, especially if they come from another religious tradition
In the interest of refuting the claims of Islam’s sacred text, Marracci provides the full Arabic text of the Qurʼan along with a Latin translation and extensive notes. Despite Marracci’s polemical interests, his work represents a massive amount of research into the Qurʼanic text and the Islamic tradition, and his Latin translation was the basis for the influential 1734 English version of the Qurʼan by George Sale (1697?–1736).
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Refutatio Alcorani (Refutation of the Qurʼan), Luigi Marracci (1612–1700), Padua, 1698. (AARB 00289)
Hagiographies and prayers edited and translated by E.A. Wallis Budge [English/Geʻez]
London, 1900
Editions and translations make important texts available to people with varying levels of language skill
This book is one of several editions and translations that Budge produced from Geʻez manuscripts belonging to Lady Meux (1852–1910), a wealthy London socialite and collector. When Lady Meux died, she left these manuscripts in her will to Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889–1913) in an attempt to return them to Ethiopia, but the British courts intervened and the manuscripts were instead sold to American newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst (1863–1951).
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The miracles of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the life of Ḥannâ (Saint Anne), and the magical prayers of 'Ahĕta Mîkâêl, edited and translated by E.A. Wallis Budge (1857–1934), London, 1900. (SJRB 00568)
Classical Languages
In many cultures, a certain language has taken on a central role as the language of scholarship, a role that we might describe as that of a “classical” language. These languages are used for scholarly writing long after they cease to be spoken, sometimes in regions where they were never spoken, in order to facilitate intellectual exchange across the borders of space and time. For much of the history of Western Europe, Latin fulfilled this role, allowing scholars to understand each other whether they spoke French, German, Catalan, or Czech in their daily lives. Arabic has functioned similarly in the Islamic world, and other classical languages, such as Syriac, have been used in other academic contexts. The books in this section are examples of the interaction between classical scholarly languages and modern vernaculars.
Depictions of the ruins of Rome by Giacomo Lauro [Latin/Italian]
Rome, 1637
Scholars may edit a text in the classical language to make it more accessible for readers of the vernacular
Lauro began printing these engraved depictions of the ancient ruins of Rome in 1612, with captions in Latin. This updated version was published in 1637 by Giovanni Ridolfo Alto (1577–1660), who edited the order of the images and added depictions of ancient and modern architecture from other regions. Alto’s Italian introduction explains the significance of the work and the nature of his own contributions.
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Antiquae urbis splendor (Splendor of the ancient city), Giacomo Lauro (active 1583–1645), Rome, 1637. (AARB 00053)
Guide for calligraphy by Kaspar Rütlinger [Latin/German/French/Italian]
Zürich, 1605
Preferred calligraphic handwriting styles might be different depending on the language
In this handwriting guide for calligraphers, most of the examples are in the German vernacular of Zürich. However, Rütlinger includes a few examples in several other European languages as well as the classical language of Latin. Notably, the style used for these languages is different from the one preferred in German, which generally used its traditional Fraktur script for both handwriting and printed text into the 20th century.
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Neüw zugerichte Schreibkunst (Newly prepared penmanship), Kaspar Rütlinger (b. 1585), Zürich, 1605. (AARB 00154)
History of the Vatican by Carlo Fontana [Latin/Italian]
Rome, 1694
In some cases classical language and vernacular are treated as equal partners, with both versions appearing in parallel columns
Fontana’s work on the Vatican traces its history from the outskirts of ancient Rome to its role as the center of the Catholic Church in the 17th century. The entire work is presented in parallel columns, pairing the Italian vernacular with the Latin original. This image shows the mechanisms used to install the ancient Egyptian obelisk in St. Peter’s Square in the 1580s.
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Templum Vaticanum et ipsius origo (The Vatican temple and its origin), Carlo Fontana (1634–1714), translated by Jean Joseph de Bonnerve de Saint-Romain (1655–1731), Rome, 1694. (AARB 00240)
Astronomical works, and the story of the destruction of Jerusalem, by various authors [Latin/Catalan]
Lyon and Catalunya, 1490–1491
Classical and vernacular languages may be used for different purposes and bound together at a later date
This book contains two printed works and one manuscript that were later bound together. The printed books are both astronomical works in Latin discussing the lunar and solar calendars, printed in Lyon in 1491 and 1490. The manuscript is a popular account of the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE that appears in several vernacular languages. This Catalan version was likely copied in the late 15th century.
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Lunarium (Book of the moon), Bernat de Granollachs (1421–approximately 1487); Computus cum commento (Calculation with commentary), Magister Anianus (13th century); Liber destructionis Ierusalem (Book of the destruction of Jerusalem). Lyon and Catalunya, 1490–1491. (HMML 00245)
Poem on theology by ʻAlī ibn ʻUthmān al-Ūshī; commentary by ʻAlī ibn Sulṭān Muḥammad al-Qārī al-Harawī [Arabic/Ottoman Turkish]
Istanbul, 1876
Texts in classical languages, published for scholars who speak another language in daily life
These two texts, a 12th-century poem on Islamic theology and a 17th-century commentary on the poem, are both in Arabic. However, the title page of this 19th-century edition is in Turkish, showing that it was printed for an audience of scholars who did not speak Arabic in their everyday interactions. Even the Arabic-speaking regions of the Ottoman Empire spoke dialects of Arabic that were quite different from the classical written language.
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Ḍawʼ al-maʻālī li-Badʼ al-amālī (Light of noble things on the Beginning of dictations), ʻAlī ibn Sulṭān Muḥammad al-Qārī al-Harawī (d. 1605/6); Badʼ al-amālī (Beginning of dictations), ʻAlī ibn ʻUthmān al-Ūshī (12th c.). Istanbul, 1876. (HMML 00637)
Arabic grammar by ʻAbd Allāh ibn Yūsuf ibn Hishām; poem on ethics by Zayn al-Dīn ʻUmar ibn al-Muẓaffar ibn al-Wardī [Arabic/Ottoman Turkish]
Istanbul, 1890
Scholars in the Ottoman Empire needed to understand Arabic in order to read the Qurʼan as well as classical texts on law and other topics
These two classical Arabic texts, one a treatise on Arabic grammar and one a poem on ethics, were edited and published with marginal commentary by the Ottoman scholar Arapkirli Hüseyin Avni (1864–1954). The editor included a title page in Turkish to explain his work. The title page also includes a statement in Turkish by a government official giving permission to publish the book.
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al-Iʻrāb ʻan qawāʻid al-iʻrāb (Rules of grammar), ʻAbd Allāh ibn Yūsuf ibn Hishām (1309–1360); Naṣīḥat al-ikhwān wa-murshidat al-khillān (Advice for brothers and guide for friends), Zayn al-Dīn ʻUmar ibn al-Muẓaffar ibn al-Wardī (d. 1349). Istanbul, 1890. (HMML 00638)
History of Venice by Cardinal Pietro Bembo [Latin/Italian]
Venice, 1729
In the early modern period, scholars advocated for the literary value of vernacular languages
Cardinal Bembo was an influential 16th-century Church leader and literary theorist. Although he was from Venice, his works encouraged the adoption of the dialect of Tuscany as a vehicle for scholarly writing, helping to turn that dialect into standard modern Italian. He wrote this history of Venice in both Latin and Italian, and this 1729 edition includes both versions in parallel columns.
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L’istoria Veneziana (Venetian history), Cardinal Pietro Bembo (1470–1547), Venice, 1729. (SJRB 00529)
World atlas by Johann Hübner [Latin/German]
Nuremberg, 1720–1740
Like common nouns, many geographical names have both classical and vernacular versions
This 18th-century atlas includes maps of all known regions of the world, although the map of America is missing in this copy. Even though the language of the maps is Latin, Hübner included a title page and table of contents in both Latin and German for the benefit of his German-speaking compatriots.
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Atlas minor (Smaller atlas), Johann Hübner (1668–1731), Nuremberg, 1720–1740. (SJRB 00602)
Multilingual Communities
For many people throughout history and today, multilingual communities have been the norm. In parts of the Ottoman Empire, for example, it would not have been unusual to hear Turkish, Arabic, Greek, Armenian, Syriac, and more, all from people who had grown up nearby. Some books reflect this rich history, bringing together passages by and for speakers of multiple vernacular languages, whether scholars or general readers. Others discuss in detail the interactions between multiple languages in the environment that produced them, or preserve anecdotes that testify to these interactions. These books encourage us to reflect on the multilingual nature of human societies and the complex linguistic interactions taking place all around us. Where do you encounter languages that are not your primary language around Minnesota, or wherever home may be? The people who produced these books knew the difficulty and richness of these interactions.
Lectures on architecture [French/German/Latin]
18th century
Scholars interact with both classical languages and multiple vernaculars based on their scholarly networks
This is a handwritten compilation of lectures on architecture by an unknown scholar. Although the text is primarily in German, the author includes significant passages in Latin and French, demonstrating that they were interacting with both classical texts and more recent vernacular works, likely as part of a multilingual scholarly community. Diagrams convey important architectural terminology in multiple languages.
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Vorträge der Baukunst (Lectures on architecture), 18th century. (AARB 00036)
Depictions of the ruins of Rome by Giacomo Lauro [French/German/Italian/Latin]
Rome, 1612–1640
Texts in classical languages need to be explained for readers of multiple vernaculars
Lauro’s engravings of ancient Rome appear elsewhere in this exhibition with an Italian introduction. This version of the book does not include the introduction, but the Latin caption of each image is explained on the back of the page in Italian, German, and French, making it accessible for a wide community of readers.
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Antiquae urbis splendor (Splendor of the ancient city), Giacomo Lauro (active 1583–1645), Rome, 1612–1640. (AARB 00296)
Guide for calligraphy by Johann Braun [French/German]
Mulhouse, 1793
Calligraphers in multilingual communities need to be prepared to complete tasks in several languages
Mulhouse is a city in the border region of Alsace, now in France, which has long been home to significant numbers of both French and German speakers. Braun prepared this calligraphy guide to ensure that local practitioners of his art would be competent in both languages in order to serve their diverse clientele.
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Deutsche und französische Vorschriften (Exemplary scripts in German and French), Johann Braun (1717–1789), Mulhouse, 1793. (AARB 00299)
Turkish grammar by Muḥammad Ṭālib [Arabic/Ottoman Turkish]
Cairo, 1886
Multilingual communities require language learning resources to help people understand each other
In the 19th century, Egypt was technically part of the Ottoman Empire but largely functioned independently until it was brought under the control of the British Empire in 1882. Muḥammad Ṭālib was a prominent Turkish teacher in Cairo who prepared this grammar book. The text is entirely Turkish, indicating that he was not writing for beginners, but the Arabic title page suggests the primary language of most of his readers.
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Nuhbetüʼl-encâb fiʼl-lugatiʼt-Türkiyye (Elite of the nobles on the Turkish language), Muḥammad Ṭālib (active 1886), Cairo, 1886. (HMML 00593)
Treatises on law and theology [Arabic]
Kahramanmaraş (Turkey), 18th century
Interactions in diverse communities create new forms of expression that sometimes mix multiple languages
This manuscript includes numerous Arabic texts, most of them written by Muḥammad ibn Ḥamzah al-Kūzal Ḥiṣārī al-Āydīnī (active 1664–1710). One of these short works weighs in on a local custom in al-Āydīnī’s hometown of Aydın, now in southwestern Turkey. Residents of the region regularly combined the traditional Arabic greeting of Islam, al-salām ʻalaykum, with a Turkish phrase meaning “good morning,” creating a bilingual greeting.
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Miscellaneous treatises on law and theology, Kahramanmaraş (Turkey), 18th century.
Legal opinions by Qāsim al-Bandarī [Arabic/Ottoman Turkish]
Crete, 18th century
Legal rulings give us a window into the daily lives of people in other times and places
We know little about al-Bandarī’s life. He was a Muslim legal scholar who lived in Candia (now Ērakleion, Greece) on the island of Crete, and he compiled this collection of fatwas (legal opinions) in 1783. Written partially in Turkish and partially in Arabic, al-Bandarī answers legal questions that were on the minds of the people of Ottoman Crete, helping us understand the issues they were facing.
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Al-Wāqiʻāt al-kabīrah (Major cases), Qāsim al-Bandarī (active 1783), Crete, 18th century. (SJRB 00115)
Sacred Languages
Many religious traditions use a language for liturgical rites and prayers that is different from the vernacular spoken language of many practitioners. This sacred language becomes an important vehicle by which the religion’s adherents experience their connection to the divine or to something beyond their everyday life. In Judaism the sacred language is generally Hebrew, in Islam it is Arabic. Christianity, on the other hand, has a variety of sacred languages depending on regional context and sectarian affiliation. Examples include Church Slavonic, Coptic, Greek, Latin, and Syriac, but others could be listed. There are examples here of Arabic as both a sacred language and a vernacular, showing how a single language may fulfill different functions for different people. Sacred languages often, but not always, become classical languages of scholarship as well, as can be seen by comparing the different sections of this exhibition.
Liturgical texts [Greek/Arabic]
Egypt, 14th century
Many Churches maintain sacred languages for liturgical purposes as vernaculars change over time
Most Egyptian Christians use Coptic as the primary sacred language of liturgy, but Greek is an important part of the Egyptian liturgical tradition as well. This manuscript is a rare example of the Greek liturgy of Alexandria with vernacular translation in Arabic. The handwriting style is distinctly Egyptian and at first glance appears to be Coptic, but the language is Greek.
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Anaphoras and other liturgical texts, Egypt, 14th century. (AARB 00006)
Liturgical chants [Latin/French]
France, 1819
Liturgical texts are often chanted or sung, and they sometimes appear with written musical notation
Most of the chants in this manuscript are in Latin, the sacred language of Roman Catholic liturgy, but a few are included in French vernacular. Fragments of a medieval parchment manuscript, also a Latin chant with musical notation, have been reused to create the cover of the book, adding to its interest and complexity.
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Collection de differentes pieces de chant (Collection of different pieces of chant), France, 1819. (AARB 00040)
Picture Bible edited by Gérard Jollain [Latin/French]
Paris, 1670–1679
Illustrated Bibles make the stories of scripture available in both the sacred language and the vernacular
This picture Bible tells the biblical stories in the form of engraved illustrations. Each image includes two captions, one in the sacred language of Latin and one in the vernacular French, while the image itself can help convey the story to those who know neither language. The engravings are by François Campion (approximately 1615–1681). This image shows the Tower of Babel, where Genesis says the world’s many languages were divided.
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La Saincte Bible contenant le Vieil et le Nouveau Testament enrichie de plusieurs belles figures (The Holy Bible containing the Old and New Testament enriched by many beautiful images), edited by Gérard Jollain (d. 1683), Paris, 1670–1679. (AARB 00183)
Psalms edited by Jibrāʼīl Ḥawwā [Syriac/Arabic Garshuni/Latin]
Rome, 1737
A text published in sacred language may be accompanied by introductory materials in other languages
This edition of the Psalms in Syriac, sacred language of the Maronite Catholic Church, was produced by the Maronite archbishop of Cyprus. It includes an introduction in Latin with an introduction and prayers in the Arabic vernacular of the Maronite community. The Arabic text is printed using the Syriac alphabet (a phenomenon known as Arabic Garshuni) because the Syriac script was more familiar to Maronite scholars than the typical Arabic script.
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Psalms, edited by Jibrāʼīl Ḥawwā (d. 1752), Rome, 1737. (AARB 00201)
Missal [Syriac/Arabic Garshuni]
Rome, 1594
Early modern European Catholic scholars printed liturgical books for Catholics in other parts of the world
This book includes the full text of the Qúrābā or Missal, the liturgy for Mass in the Maronite Church. As with many liturgical texts, this one includes portions in both the sacred language (in this case Syriac) and the vernacular (Arabic). A few woodcut illustrations are included, reused from an Arabic edition of the Gospels that was printed at the same press a few years earlier.
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Qúrābā (Missal), Maronite rite, Rome, 1594. (AARB 00216)
Basic devotional and liturgical texts [Latin/English]
Rouen, 1538
Primers include basic texts, often for devotional use, in both sacred and vernacular languages
This book, which contains important prayers and biblical passages in both English and Latin, was printed in northern France just as King Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547) was working to separate the Church of England from the Catholic Church. Perhaps the publishers hoped that the availability of these texts in both the sacred language and the vernacular would help return the English people to the Church.
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Prymer; An exposycyon after the maner of a contemplacyon upon the li Psalme, by Girolamo Savonarola (1452–1498); Pystles and Gospels of euery Sonday and holy Daye in the yere. Rouen, 1538. (AARB 00224)
Bible [Church Slavonic/Greek]
Ostroh (Ukraine), 1581
Interactions between related Churches may lead to the presence of multiple sacred languages in a single book
This is the first complete edition of the Bible in Church Slavonic, the sacred language of many Slavic Churches. It was printed by Ivan Fedorov (approximately 1510–1583) in Ostroh, then part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and now in western Ukraine. Due to the importance of Greek in the Eastern Orthodox tradition more broadly, the book includes an introduction and colophon that are bilingual in Church Slavonic and Greek.
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Bible, Ostroh (Ukraine), 1581. (AARB 00236)
Qurʼan [Arabic/Persian]
Iran, 18th century
Muslims value the original Arabic text of the Qurʼan, but vernacular translations and notes often accompany it
The Qurʼan, revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in the sacred language of Arabic, is the holy text of Islam. In the Islamic manuscript tradition, the original Arabic text is almost always copied. For Muslims who do not understand Arabic, interlinear translations and marginal notes can convey the meaning in other languages. This manuscript includes translations and notes in Persian.
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Qurʼan, Iran, 18th century. (HMML 00519)
Book of hours [Latin/French]
Lyon, 1450–1500
Devotional books in sacred languages may include other elements in the vernacular
The “Book of hours” was a common devotional genre in late medieval Western Europe, appealing to the growing class of Christians who could both afford the book and read it. This example includes the Latin prayers for the seven canonical hours of each day, preceded by a calendar in French that shows the major festivals of the year.
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Book of hours, Lyon, 1450–1500. (SJRB 00001)
Talmud [Hebrew/Aramaic]
14th century
Hebrew is the primary sacred language of Judaism, but Aramaic has played a major role in the central Jewish texts for millennia
This is a fragment of the Talmud, the central text of Rabbinic Judaism. The text is a complex interplay between the Hebrew of the Jewish scriptures and the Aramaic vernacular that was used by the rabbis who commented on the sacred texts. This fragment was likely reused as binding waste in a Christian book after its Jewish owners were expelled from their city or were forced to sell the manuscript.
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Talmud, Pesaḥim (Passovers), 14th century. (HMML 00680)
Liturgical text [Coptic/Arabic]
Egypt, 14th–16th century
Arabic has become the vernacular language of many Christian communities across the Middle East
This is a fragment of a liturgical book in the sacred language of Coptic, the latest historical stage of the ancient Egyptian language. The Coptic text is paired with a parallel translation in Arabic, which became the vernacular language of Egyptian Christians in the early second millennium CE. A typical Coptic liturgy today includes portions in both languages and may include additional vernaculars in the Coptic diaspora, such as English.
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Liturgical text, Egypt, 14th–16th century. (HMML 00653)
Complex Histories
Sometimes multiple languages were not present in a book when it was originally created but are found now as a result of the book’s complex history. These books have been studied, collected, and used for various purposes over the course of centuries. A new language may have been added in a note from a later owner or by a reader who wanted to help others understand an unfamiliar text. Books or fragments of books may have been rebound together at a later date. In some cases, a book was reused by a later writer working in a different language or by an artist who had little interest in the written language of the book at all. Items in different languages may have fallen into the book or been stored there for safe keeping. Each situation gives us a unique window into the life of a book and its users.
Prayers [German with English]
Pont-à-Mousson (France), 1669
Modern collectors and sellers may explain the contents of a book in another language
This fragment from an unknown devotional book in German has been mounted on a sturdy backing to protect it and make it easier to display. Descriptive text in English has been added by the Foliophiles, an early 20th-century society of New York book enthusiasts who worked to market individual leaves of rare books and manuscripts for collectors. The tone of their text suggests this marketing goal.
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Prayers, Pont-à-Mousson (France), 1669. (AARB 00058)
Life of St. Benedict by Angelo Faggi [Latin with Italian]
Rome, 1587 and later
Text in a classical language may be explained or augmented by a later scribe in the vernacular
Faggi’s version of the life of St. Benedict is told in images accompanied by short poems in Latin. A later user of the book has added poems in Italian to the originally blank verso (rear) sides of the pages. These poems explain and reflect on the episodes depicted on the facing pages, bringing their lessons into the vernacular language of the book’s readers.
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Speculum et exemplar Christicolarum (Mirror and exemplar for Christians), Angelo Faggi (1500–1593), Rome, 1587 and later. (AARB 00281)
Qurʼan [Arabic with Uzbek]
Central Asia, 19th century
Fragments of different books are sometimes bound together by later owners
Someone has inserted the first page of an early 20th-century printed book inside the front cover of this Qurʼan manuscript. The title page tells us that the print book is an Uzbek version of the epic tale of Jamshīd, a legendary king of ancient Iran. It was printed in Tashkent using the Arabic alphabet, which was the normal way of writing Uzbek before the Soviet period.
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Qurʼan, Central Asia, 19th century. (HMML 00021)
Qurʼan [Arabic with French/Armenian]
Hārar, 1724
Miscellaneous items sometimes make their way into books as bookmarks or for safe keeping
This Qurʼan manuscript was almost certainly copied in Hārar, the historic Islamic intellectual center of the Horn of Africa, now in eastern Ethiopia. The growing influence of Europe in modern Ethiopia is shown in an advertising card (see next image) that was later placed in the book. The card advertizes Matik Kevorkoff’s tobacco company, with text in French and Armenian. Kevorkoff was an Armenian businessman who settled in Addis Ababa at the end of the 19th century and established an Armenian school.
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Qurʼan, Hārar, 1724. (HMML 00564)
Qurʼan [Arabic with French/Armenian]
Hārar, 1724
Miscellaneous items sometimes make their way into books as bookmarks or for safe keeping
Advertising card for Matik Kevorkoff’s tobacco company with text in French and Armenian. Kevorkoff was an Armenian businessman who settled in Addis Ababa at the end of the 19th century and established an Armenian school. Found in Qurʼan manuscript (previous image)
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Qurʼan, Hārar, 1724. (HMML 00564)
Fragments with paintings [Arabic/Persian]
India, 18th century and later
Books are reused for various purposes, sometimes having little to do with their original contents
This may look like an original leaf from an elaborately decorated manuscript in the South Asian style. In fact the painting was added later by someone who found existing scraps of manuscript text and painted unrelated images directly over the words, portions of which are still visible. This was likely done to create a marketable item for a tourist who could not read the text anyway.
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Various fragments with paintings, India, 18th century and later. (SJRB 00103)
Liturgical chants with historical and biblical undertexts [Georgian/Syriac]
Mount Sinai, 10th century and earlier
The reuse of writing materials is an ancient phenomenon and creates manuscripts known as palimpsests
When HMML acquired this manuscript, it was identified as an early modern fragment in Armenian. It is now known to be a 10th-century fragment in Georgian. It is a palimpsest, meaning that earlier Syriac texts were scraped off (twice!) so that the parchment could be reused. New technology such as multispectral imaging helps us read and identify the older undertexts, which may go back as early as the 5th century.
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Liturgical chants; History of the monks of Syria, by Theodoret of Cyrrhus (393–496); Gospel of Matthew. Mount Sinai, 10th century and earlier. (HMML 00654)
Deuteronomy [Hebrew with English]
Nablus, 19th century
Notes by later owners give us valuable information about the history of manuscripts and other items
This is a fragment of the Samaritan version of the Pentateuch. The language is Hebrew, but the alphabet is unique to the Samaritans, whose historic center is modern Nablus in the West Bank. The manuscript is likely a recent copy, but the purchasers may have believed that it was ancient. An English note explains that a high price was paid for the fragment, primarily in “arrack” (liquor).
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Deuteronomy, Nablus, 19th century. (HMML 00650)
Curator(s)
Dr. Josh Mugler
Credits
Many thanks to Tim Ternes, Claire Kouri, and Hannah Weldon, who brought together the materials for the gallery and online exhibitions; to John Meyerhofer, without whose abilities the online exhibition would not be possible; to Margaret Bresnahan, who worked tirelessly to find the right format for the text; and to Matthew Heintzelman and Daniel Gullo, who helped find materials and provided feedback on items that were outside the curator’s expertise.